Banana as a Natural Superdisintegrant

Banana as a Natural Superdisintegrant The objective of the study was to evaluate banana powder as a superdisintegrant for the formulation of oral disintegrating tablets and to compare the results with commonly used superdisintegrants like croscarmellose sodium, pre gelatinised starch and sodium starch glycolate. Oral disintegrating tablets containing Domperidone as the model drug were formulated using five different concentrations of each superdisintegrant (2%, 4%, 6%, 8% 10%) and compressed by direct compression. The formulations were subjected to various evaluation studies such as wetting time, water absorption ratio, disintegration time and in-vitro dissolution. The results showed that the disintegration time and drug release of the formulation containing banana powder (6%) was comparable to other super disintegrants. The IR spectrum analysis demonstrated that banana powder was compatible with the drug. These results suggest that banana powder can be used effectively as a superdisintegrant in orally disintegrating ta blet formulations. Banana, is a natural product which is available in plenty, economically affordable and has its own nutritional value. It can be used as a potential additive in the formulation of oro -dispersible tablets. Keyword: orodispersible tablets, superdisintegrants, disintegration time, natural excipients. INTRODUCTION The tablet is the widely used dosage form because of its convenience in terms of self-administration, compactness, and ease in manufacturing. For the past one decade, there has been a demand for more patient-friendly and compliant dosage forms. As a result, the development of new technologies has been increasing annually. Since the cost for development new drug molecule is very high, efforts are now being made by pharmaceutical companies to focus on the development of new drug dosage forms for existing drugs with more safety and efficacy together with reduced dosing frequency, and the production of more cost-effective dosage forms. However, geriatric and pediatric patients were having difficulty in swallowing conventional tablets, which leads to poor patient compliance. To overcome this problem, scientists have developed innovative drug delivery systems known as melt in mouth or mouth dissolve (MD) or sometimes dispersible tablets. These are novel types of tablets that disintegrate /disperse in saliva. Their characteristic advantages such as administration without water, lead to suitability for the geriatric and pediatric patients. They are also suitable for the bedridden patients, and patients who do not have easy access to water. The advantages, in terms of patient compliance, rapid onset of action, increased bioavailability (in some instances) and comparable stability to conventional tablets make these tablets popular as a dosage form of choice particularly in these populations. Domperidone maleate is a widely used anti-emetic drug, acting by inhibition of the dopaminergic receptor. Domperidone maleate does not cross the blood brain barrier. Domperidone maleate is also effective in gastro paresis, pediatrics gastro esophageal reflux (infant vomiting). Domperidone maleate after oral dosing undergoes extensive gastric and hepatic first pass metabolism resulting in low bioavailability (15%) which therefore, may not minimize the rate of vomiting. In context of the above principles, a strong need was recognized for the development of mouth dissolving tablets of Domperidone maleate to improve its bioavailability for relief on nausea and vomiting. In mouth dissolving tablets, disintegrants plays a major role. A  disintegrant  is a substance in a tablet formulation that enables the tablet to break up into smaller fragments upon contact with gastrointestinal fluids. Such a rapid rupture of the tablet matrix increases the surface area of the tablet particles, thereby increasing the rate of absorption of the active ingredient and decreasing the onset of time to therapeutic effect. A new disintegrant class has emerged during the recent past known as the Superdisintegrant. Superdisintegrants improve disintegrant efficiency resulting in decreased use levels, typically 1-10% by weight relative to total weight of tablet when compared to traditional disintegrants. The excipients added to the formulation should not only act as formulating agent it also act as good therapeutic agent and also free from toxicity. In the present research work an attempt was made to use banana powder as a superdisintegrant in the formulation of mouth dissolving tablets. Banana powder being a natural substance and rich in nutrition and availability can be an added advantage in using them as a pharmaceutical excipient. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Domperidone maleate was a gift from sterling lab (hosur,India) banana powder (self made) croscarmellose sodium (CCS) and sodium starch glycolate (SSG)as pharmaceutical grade was obtained from Loba chem ,mumbai, pre-gelatinised starch (PGS) as pharmaceutical grade was obtained from colorcon, Mumbai ,all other materials used were of suitable analytical grade. Preparation of banana powder: The unriped banana fruit was purchased from the local market. The fruit was cleaned and the peel was removed. Then the pulp was dried and powdered using mixer. The powdered substance was collected and stored in well closed container for further studies. Phase solubility studies: Phase solubility studies was done as per the method reported by (K.Venkates et.al,2009)2.Drug and superdisintegrant as per specified ratio (1:1,1:2,1:3,1:4,1:5) were weighed accurately and added to 25ml of water in screw capped bottles. All the bottles were shaken in Remi orbital incubator shaker at 370c with 100rpm for 24 hr. The container with drug and water was used as control. After 24 hr the solution was filtered using whatman filter paper (0.45 microns) .Then the filtrate was analyzed at wavelength of 284nm using Systronics TM double beam spectrophotometer. From the absorbance the solubility of drug was calculated. Compatibility studies: The compatibility study of drug with excipients was done using IR spectroscopy. The drug and the excipients were mixed in a ratio of 1:1 and stored in glass vials at 40 °C/75% RH for 30days. At the end of 30 days samples were withdrawn from each vial and the IR spectrum for those samples were taken. The samples were prepared by pressed pellet technique. The IR spectras was determined using JASCO FT/IR-4100 (3-4).16 scans were taken for each sample. The scanning range was between 4000-400 cm-1. The IR spectra of pure drug and pure excipients were compared to that of the mixture of drug and excipients and any interaction were analyzed. Microbial load for banana powder: Pour plate method was used to cultivate 1ml of banana powder solution with distilled water on muller Hilton agar medium for enumeration of bacteria and sarboured dextrose agar medium for fungi. The plate was incubated at 370c for 24 hours for bacteria while fungi plates were incubated at 270c for 72 hrs (3-6). At the end of the incubation period, the bacterial and fungal colonies formed were counted. Sterilized banana powder solution was taken as control. Swelling index: Swelling index was defined as the volume in milliliters occupied by 1 gram of superdisintegrant powder including any adhering mucilage, after it had swollen in water for 4 hour. The swelling index of the superdisintegrant was performed according to the (BP, 2007) method (7-9). In a 25ml ground- glass stoppered cyclinder graduated over a height of 125 ±5 mm in 0.5 ml divisions. About 25ml of water was added and shaken vigorously every 10 min for 1 hour and then allowed to stand for 3 hours. The volume occupied by the superdisintegrating agent including adhering mucilage was measured. The swelling index was calculated from the mean of three determinations. Pre-compression studies: All materials were mixed as per the composition shown in table1 and passed through 60 mesh sieve. The pre-compression studies (10-11) were done as follows. Bulk density: It is the ratio of total mass of powder to the bulk volume of powder. It was measured by Pouring the weight powder (passed through standard sieve # 60) into a measuring cylinder and initial weight was noted. The initial volume is called the bulk volume. From this the bulk density is calculated according to the formula. It is expressed in g/ml and the equation was given by Bulk density= mass/bulk volume (1) Tapped density: It is the ratio of total mass of the powder to the tapped volume of the powder. Volume was Measured by tapping the powder for 750 times and the tapped volume was noted if the difference between these two volumes is less than 2%. If it is more than 2%, tapping is continued for 1250 times and tapped volume was noted. Tapping was continued until the difference between successive volumes is less than 2 % (in a bulk density apparatus). It is expressed in g/ml and the equation was given by Tapped density= mass/ tapped volume. (2) Carrs index (or) % compressibility: It indicates powder flow properties. It is expressed in percentage and is given as Carrs index =Tapped density-Bulk density/Tapped density (3) Hausner ratio: Hausner ratio is an indirect index of ease of powder flow. It is calculated by the formula given below. Hausner ratio= Tapped density/bulk density (4) Lower hausner ratio (1.25). Preparation of tablet: All the materials were passed through 60 # screens prior to mixing. Domperidone maleate, Croscarmellose sodium (CCS), Sodium Starch Glycolate (SSG), Pre-gelatinised starch (PGS),Banana powder, Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC),Neotame (nutrasweet), Mannitol (DC) , Talc, Magnesium stereate and flavour ( pharmaceutical grade) were mixed using a glass mortar and pestle. The formulation without superdisintegrant was prepared and used as control. All the materials were directly compressed into tablets using concave face round tooling on a Rimek- rotary tablet machine at 12 rpm . The composition of the batches is shown in Table 1. INGREDIENTS Evaluation of tablet: Tablet hardness: The hardness of the tablet was determined by using Tab machine hardness tester. Weight variation: Twenty tablets were selected randomly from each formulation and weighed individually using a Shimadzu digital balance (BL-220H). The individual weight was compared with the average weight for the weight variation. Friability test: The friability of the tablets was measured in a Friability apparatus (Camp-bell Electronics, Mumbai). Tablets of a known weight (W0) or a sample of 20 tablets are dedusted in a drum for a fixed time (100 revolutions) and weighed (W) again. Percentage friability for each formulation was calculated from the loss in weight as given in equation below. Determination was made in triplicate. % Friability = W0â‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬â„¢WÃÆ'-100/ W0 (5) Wetting time: A piece of tissue paper folded twice was placed in a small petridish (internal diameter = 6.5 cm) containing 6 ml of simulated saliva pH (phosphate buffer pH 6.8). A tablet was placed on the paper, and the time required for complete wetting was measured visually. Six measurements were performed for each batch (Nitin Jonwal et al, 2010). Water absorption time: A piece of tissue paper folded twice was placed in a small petridish (Internal Diameter = 6.5 cm) which containing 6 ml of phosphate buffer (pH6.8). A tablet was placed on the paper and the time required for complete wetting was then measured (Nitin Jonwal et al, 2010). The water absorption ratio (R) for the each formulation was determined using the following Equation. Water absorption ratio (R) =Waâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Wb ÃÆ'-100 / wb (6) Where, Wb is the weight of the tablet before water absorption and Wa is the weight of the tablet after water absorption. Disintegration test: Disintegration test was done by using disintegration apparatus (camp-bell electronics, Mumbai)with distilled water as disintegration media at 370c and the time in second taken for complete disintegration of tablet with no palpable mass in the apparatus was noted visually (Nitin Jonwal et al,2010). In-vitro dissolution study: The release study was performed using (Tab machine) six stage dissolution rate apparatus (BP/IP/USP) paddle type with 900ml of 0.1N HCL (PH=1.2) as dissolution medium at 370c and 50rpm. The sample10ml was withdrawn with the time interval of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20,25and 30 min. The volume of withdrawn sample was replaced with 10ml 0.1N HCL. The sample was filtered. Absorbance of the sample was measured using PC Based double beam spectrophotometer. The cumulative release was measured using equation obtained from standard curve. The regression co efficient of the standard was R2= 0.9997. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Phase solubility studies: The phase solubility studies was done as per the method reported by K .Venkates etal2.The solubility of drug was determined by increasing the concentration of superdisintegrant by specified ratio (1:1,1:2,1:3,1:4,1:5). The pure drug had a solubility of 0.2mg/ml whereas the solubility of the drug with added superdisintegrants showed a value of about 0.44 to 1.1mg/ml for CCS, 0.46 to 1.21mg/ml for SSG, 0.34 to 0.46mg/ml for PGS and 0.8 to 2.7mg/ml for banana powder. The above results suggested that on increasing concentration of the superdisintegrants the solubility of the pure drug tends to increase. Of the four superdistegrants used, banana powder showed the maximum increase in solubility of the drug. Compatibility studies: The drug excipient compatibility study was done by using JASCO FT/IR spectrometer. The IR spectra for pure drug, excipients and drug-excipient mixture were shown in Figure1. The pure drug showed characteristic absorption bands at 3127.97 (Aromatic CH stretching), 1487.81 (C=C ring stretching), 1147.44 (CH2 Alkane bending), 928.557 (RCH=CH2), 891,866,833 (Para substituted benzene) and the formulation shows characteristic absorption band at 3123.15 (Aromatic CH stretching), 1487.81 (C=C ring stretching), 1147.44 (CH2 Alkane bending), 928.557 (RCH=CH2), 891,865,833 (Para substituted benzene). The spectrum of the drug-excipient mixture was found to be a mere summation of the individual spectrum of the drug and excipients which suggest that there were no interaction between drug and excipients and were compatible with each other. Swelling index: The swelling indeces for the crosscarmellose sodium, sodium starch glycolate , pre-gelatinised starch, banana powder are presented in table3. The values obtained suggest that the swelling index banana powder is comparable to other superdisintegrant. Microbial load: The banana powder was a natural substance and so the microbial load test was done and the results shown that it contains microbial growth of about 253 cfu/gm and fungal growth of about 89 cfu/gm which was under the limit specified by (United state pharmacopoeia,2007) (5). Pre-compression studies: All the materials was mixed as per composition shown in table1.For each designed formulation blend of drug and excipients was prepared and evaluated for micromeritic properties and the obtained results were shown in Table3. The bulk density and tapped density for all formulation was presented in table 3. The hausners ratio and %compressibility index was found to be in the range of 1.14-1.28 and12-22% (Table 3). All formulation shows good blend property for direct compression and hence tablet was prepared by using direct compression technology. The results shows that formulation containing banana powder has better physical properties compare to other formulation (Table 3). Evaluation of tablets: The tablet was prepared by direct compression method as per Table1.The prepared tablets were evaluated for weight variation, hardness, friability, wetting time, water absorption ratio, as shown in Table4. The weight variation was found to be in the range of 248mg-253mg for all formulation .The hardness was found to be in the range of 2-3kg/cm in all formulation indicating good mechanical strength and it has ability to with stand physical and mechanical stress condition while handling. The friability for all formulation was less than 1% as per (British pharmacopoeia, 2007) . The wetting time is closely related to the inner structure of the tablet. This method mimics the action of saliva in contact with the tablet to illustrate the water uptake and subsequent wetting of tablet. This shows the wetting process was very rapid in almost all formulation. This may be due to the ability of swelling followed by breaking and also capacity of water absorption and swelling. The wetting time was found in the range of (Table4). Water absorption which is important criteria for understanding the capacity of disintegrants to swell in the presence of light amount of water was calculated. The tablets showed in the range of 12-100 sec (Table4). This shows all the formulation have good water absorption capacity. The most important parameter that needs to optimize in the development of mouth dissolving tablet is the disintegration time of tablet. In the present study all the formulations disintegrated within 1min. Table 5 give the disintegration time achieved by all the formulation. Four replicates were done. The disintegration time for tablet prepared with banana powder was much lower than the other synthetic superdisintegrants, indicating that banana powder has good disintegrant property (Table 5). Among the synthetic agents CCS was found to be having good disintegrating property than SSG and PGS. This rapid disintegration of banana powder and CCS was due to their rapid capillary activity and pronounced hydration with little tendency to gel formation . The results are in consistent with wetting and water absorption time. Dissolution studies: The drug release studies of the prepared formulations were done as per the method prescribed by British pharmacopoeia. The dissolution profiles of all the formulations were shown in Figure 2-6. It is clearly evident from the obtained data, that the tablet with banana powder as superdisintegrant showed excellent drug release as compared to other agents. It is clear that release of drug has improved considerably in formulation containing banana powder and CCS due to the rapid capillary activity and pronounced hydration with little tendency to gel formation. But the formulation containing SSG and PGS has less dissolution efficiency because it has more tendencies to form gel formation .The batch B3 containing banana powder (6%) and C3 containing CCS (6%) shows good dissolution efficiency and rapid dissolution compare to SSG and PGS. CONCLUSION The present study was aimed at evaluating the disintegrant property of banana powder in the formulation of mouth dissolving tablets. The obtained results clearly demonstrate the ability of banana powder as a superdisintegrant. The disintegration time obtained by tablets with banana powder wascomparable to that obtained with other commonly used disintegrants. Hence it can be used very effectively in the formulation of MDTs. Banana powder being a natural product with abundant availability can be used as a potential pharmaceutical excipient in various solid dosage forms especially in fast release products. The economical and nutritional value of banana powder will be an added advantage of using them in the pharmaceutical formulations.

jazz Essay -- essays research papers

Jazz is the kind of music that makes me want to do one of two things. Depending on the mood of the jazz, sometimes I feel like relaxing and just listening to the music and letting it run through me. Other times I feel like getting up and dancing as if I have not a care in the world. The jazz concert I attended on at SLO Brewing Company on October 6, 2001 inspired me to do both of these due to the variety used by the musicians in dynamic, rhythm, tempo, and many other aspects of music.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The group consisted of three individuals called the Anthony Wilson Trio. The instruments included an electric guitar, a percussion set, and an organ. The three sounds were creatively combined to make for a wonderful concert.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first aspect of the music I recognized was the volume, or the dynamics. It ranged from forte during the climactic moments to mezzo piano during the calmer parts, but mostly remained in this range throughout the concert. There were also several instances of crescendo and decrescendo, which served to build up tension or slow the piece down, respectively.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next element I discovered was the pitch of the music. Relatively speaking, I would estimate that the majority of the pieces were on the high side of the pitch, and therefore frequency, scale. The range of pitches was moderate, but as stated previously, mostly higher notes were used.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The rhythm and...

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Essay

The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was created by the Banking Act of 1933 in response to the banking crisis that faced the nation after the stock market crash on Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929. Although the FDIC has grown and changed since then, its purpose is still the same – to guarantee the safety of bank deposits up to a certain amount. Until recently, that amount was $100,000 but Congress, in response to the current economic crisis has temporarily increased FDIC deposit insurance from $100,000 to $250,000 per depositor through December 31, 2009. (Who, n.d.) All of the banks that are members of the FDIC must adhere to certain liquidity and reserve requirements in order for the banks and their depositors to benefit from the insurance. (Overview, n.d.) If a bank becomes undercapitalized the FDIC issues a warning. If the undercapitalization worsens it can take other corrective measures which may ultimately result in the FDIC taking over management. All of this is meant to sustain the confidence of depositors so that there are no runs on the banks as so often happened in past history. The History of the FDIC To understand the importance of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation in today’s economic market one must look to the history that led up to its establishment as part of the Banking Act of 1933. After the crash of the stock market in 1929 the United States fell into the longest economic depression in its history – from 1929 to 1939. Since loans that were made to stock market speculators were not being repaid after the crash, many banks failed and bank panics were commonplace. This led to their depositors’ losing money, which only served to fuel the depression further. The bank failures of the early 1930s were not the first in the history of the United States, but they were the most severe to date. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt saw the need to stem the tide of failures by enacting the Banking Act of 1933. Part of this act established the FDIC, gave it authority to regulate and insure banks, and the act also provided its funding. The purpose of the FDIC was to build the confidence of the American people in their banks and to assure them that their funds would be safe, at least up to a certain amount. (FDIC Timeline, n.d., 1930) This is still the general purpose of the FDIC, although much has changed since its birth in 1933. According to the FDIC website â€Å"since the start of FDIC insurance on January 1, 1934, no depositor has lost a single cent of insured funds as a result of a failure.† (Who, n.d.) When the FDIC was established in 1933 it was a temporary agency. But just two years later the Banking Act of 1935 made it a permanent agency. (FDIC Timeline, n.d., 1930) This was the first of many changes and adjustments to the FDIC over the years. The Federal Deposit Insurance Act of 1950 raised the insured amount to $10,000 and that amount has increased steadily until now, it is $250,000. The 1950 legislation also gave the FDIC â€Å"the authority to lend to any insured bank in danger of closing if the operation of the bank is essential to the local community, and authorized the FDIC to examine national and state member banks for their insurance risk.†Ã‚   (Important, n.d.) In 1989, in response to the savings and loan crisis gripping the nation, the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act (FIRREA) added two more functions to the FDIC, eliminating the Federal Savings & Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC). The FDIC was given the authority to oversee and administer two other insurance funds that replaced the FSLIC – the Savings Association Insurance Fund (SAIF) and the Bank Insurance Fund (BIF). (FDIC, n.d.) Still more powers were given to the FDIC by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act (FDICIA) of 1991. This act addressed issues that the FIRREA did not, giving the FDIC more authority as well as more obligations. The FDIC continued to grow both in funding and authority until it reached the status that it holds in our economy today. The Structure of the FDIC The FDIC of today is run by a five-member board of directors headed up by Chairman of the Board, Sheila C. Bair who has been in that post since she was sworn in on June 26, 2006. She will serve a five year term and at the expiration of that term, she will remain on the Board of Directors until 2013. Each Chairman of the Board is appointed by the President to serve a five-year term and each appointment is subject to the approval of the US Senate. (Barrymore, n.d.) Since the chairman is appointed by the President, she can also be removed by the President. The other members of the Board are the Vice Chairman Martin J. Gruenberg, Director Thomas J. Curry, Comptroller of the Currency John C. Dugan, and Director of the Office of Thrift Supervision John M. Reich. (Board, n.d.) The Board meets about once a month in either open or closed meetings. The public may attend open meetings as a result of the Government in the Sunshine Act. (FDIC Board Meetings, n.d.) In 2008 there were ten open meetings held. The FDIC has seven divisions. The Division of Finance directs the accounting and auditing aspects; the Division of Information Technology oversees and maintains the computer network of the organization; the Division of Administration provides administrative support; the Division of Supervision and Consumer Protection conducts reviews to assure that each bank is sound and that its internal controls are adequate; the Division of Resolutions and Receiverships goes into action when a bank is in danger of failing; the Legal Division handles the corporations litigation; and the Division of Insurance and Research keeps an eye on the economic health of the nation, examining business activity, markets, etc. (FDIC Divisions, n.d.) To run these seven divisions the FDIC employs about 5,000 people in its Washington, D.C. headquarters as well as in six regional offices and in field offices around the country. (Who, n.d.)

A Survey Of The Kenyan Banking Sector Business Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4251 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Case study Did you like this example? Communication is an organisational asset which has a big impact on the success of the business. Communication serves a number of important functions in an organisation such as sharing and clarifying goals, identifying how goals are to be achieved, exerting control, motivating others, developing a sense of community and commitment, sharing information and creating common understanding. It is estimated that employees spend about four fifth of their working life communicating (Ferreira, 2006). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Survey Of The Kenyan Banking Sector Business Essay" essay for you Create order Communication in the organisation is central to the success of the business and must be taken into consideration in a quest to increase organisational competitive advantage. According to a study conducted in the U.S. by Watson Wyatt, a human resources consulting firm, companies that communicate more effectively with their employees have a lower turnover rate (on average 33.3 percent) than those that communicate less effectively (average 51.6 percent) (Ewing, 2007). Du Plessis and Boshoff (2008, p.3) defined internal communication as the communication between people working together to achieve individual or collective organisational goals. Internal communication, also referred to as organisational communication, is the process of communication between the people within the organisation (Scheffer Crystal, 2008). Internal communication process is used to maintain good relationships, describe tasks, give instructions and communicate the goals and philosophy of the organisation (Ferre ira, 2006). Effective internal communication is a major contributor to the success of change initiatives in organisations. In particular, at the individual level, appropriate internal communication helps employees to understand both the need for change, and the personal effects of the proposed change (Goodman Truss, 2004). The study of internal communication is arguably one of the fastest growing areas within the field of communication, with a 25-30 percent growth rate in the past five years. In fact, studies indicate that organisations are pointing to effective internal communication as an influential factor in business success (Cees, Berens, Dijkastra, 2005; Holtz, 2006). Internal communication is defined as the formal and informal communication taking place internally at all levels of an organisation (Kalla, 2005, p.304). Research on internal communication is cross disciplinary, and the number of available definitions reflects this fact. Internal communication can be termed as internal marketing, organisational communication, employee relations (Quirke, 2000), management communication, internal media, cross-departmental communication (Greenbaum, Clampitt, Willihnganz, 1988), business or corporate communication (Kitchen, 1997), strategic communication (Argenti, 2007) or integrated internal communications (Kalla, 2005). Welch and Jackson (2007) view internal communication from a stakeholder approach and define it as the strategic management of interactions and relationships between stakeholders at all levels within organisations (p. 183). Holtz (2006) noted that, in the past, company communication, typically in the form of publications, consisted of the four Bs: birthdays, babies, brides and bowling scores. In marked contrast, today, the function of internal communication includes the transmission of organisational goals, activities, new developments, achievements and personal contributions as well as strategic visionary messages (Welch Jackson, 200 7). Welch and Jackson (2007) suggest the function of internal communications has four dimensions: (1) internal line management, (2) internal team peer communication, (3) internal project peer communication and (4) internal corporate communication (as noted in Table 1.1 below). Table 1.1 Internal communication matrix Dimension Level Direction Participants Content Internal line management communication Line managers/ supervisors Predominantly two-way Line managers-employees Employees roles Personal impact e.g. appraisal discussions, team briefings Internal team peer communication Team colleagues Two way Employee-employee Team information, e.g. team task discussions Internal project peer communication Project group colleagues Two way Employee-employee Project information e.g. project issues Internal corporate communication Strategic managers/top management Predominantly one-way Strategic mangers-all employees Organizational/corporate issues e.g. goals, objectives, new developments, activities and achievementsSource: (Welch Jackson, 2007, p.185) These four dimensions emphasize that the content of internal communication has moved from the four Bs into all areas of the organisation including strategic go als and personal development. In addition to the content, the four dimensions also highlight the two-way relationship between employees and managers at all levels of the organisation and the importance of internal communication to organisational success (Tourish, Wilson, 2002; Zetterquist Quirke, 2007) with effective internal communication leading to improved productivity, reduced absenteeism, increased levels of innovation, higher quality of services and products and reduced costs (Argenti, 2007). Literature spanning the last 10 years suggests that good internal communication management is one of the pivotal steps towards successful and productive communication within an organisation (Holtz, 2006; Karian Box, 2006; Cees et al., 2005; Quirke, 2000a; Tourish Hargie, 2000a). Welch and Jackson (2007) state that; internal communication management includes participation in communication, its direction and the content of communication (p.184). However, participation and direction o f communication is strongly influenced by the hierarchical structure of the organisation where issues of status, power, rank and prerequisites often cloud the form and content of upward communication (Silburyte, 2004, p.192). Today, organisations are adopting flatter more dynamic structures which have more inclusive participation from all levels of the organisation (Silburyte, 2004) as well as varied content including new developments, organisational achievements, appraisal discussions and employee roles, noted previously in Welch and Jacksons four dimensions of internal communication (see Table 1.1) Similarly, Quirke (2000a) also suggests that internal communication can be shared across different organisational departments and likens it to a jigsaw where each section is responsible for a piece of the internal communication puzzle (i.e. the core departments within an organization). This metaphor suggests that internal communication is more than the realm of corporate communicatio n and is involved in all areas of the organisation. In the modern global competitive environment, corporate branding has become an important source of sustainable competitive advantage and a central element of corporate strategy (Balmer Gray, 2003). It includes core values cherished by a company, its corporate culture, identity, business model, people and it can be described as -the visual, verbal and behavioral expression of corporate identity and business model (CicvariÃÆ'„à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡, 2006). The corporate branding strategy determines the manner in which a company will fulfill its mission and vision, and realize value for its stakeholders (Jarventie-Thesleff et al, 2011). It is most often expressed through the so-called brand promise which the company has to live and maintain in everyday business, to all stakeholders (Aaker, 2004). In delivering the value and brand promise, as well as in the application of each branding strategy, a strategic part is played by the companys employees (from top management to those on lower-level positions, who co-operate daily with different stakeholders. The employees role becomes clear when considered in conjunction with the corporate branding strategy framework, which is not only the products and services it sells, but it also represents what the company does and actually is, (i.e. a functionally and emotionally rounded unity). Due to intensive technological changes, the life cycle of products and services has a declining tendency, so corporate branding becomes the cornerstone for building and maintaining relations with stakeholders. One the other hand, the corporate reputation definition, describing reputation -as a set of relatively long-term impressions, attitudes and emotions of individuals or groups in respect of an organization, established through experience or partially credible indirect information, in the context of personal and social expectations, which impacts intentions or behavior of indiv iduals or groups in connection with that specific organization (Vlastelica BakiÃÆ'„à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡, 2012), helps to grasp the significance of employees in the establishment of beliefs and attitudes of the companys other stakeholders. The value of corporate branding and reputation yields benefits for the company which increases its financial performances and market value on the long run. This represents valuable resources which competitors cannot copy or imitate. Aside from reputation, being the organizations intangible capital, another precious resource that is unique and attributable to one company only involves its employees, their knowledge, abilities and skills. Kotler Wong, Saunders and Armstrong (2005) define a brand as a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of these, that identifies the maker or seller of a product or service and seeks to differentiate them from those of competitors. The brand is more or less the essence of an organization that i nforms the customers choice to interact with one brand over another. It is therefore clear that by focusing more efforts on branding, organisations can attempt to differentiate themselves more in the minds of customers and potential customers by increasing the value propositions associated with their brands and create a strong brand image and presence in the market thus giving them a stronger competitive advantage. Fernandez (2004) defines a corporate brand as the institutions image, reputation, financial assets, performance and people. Thus, the corporate brand of an organisation tells us what to expect from the organisation as a whole the set of values, promises, standards and characteristics of an organisation as embodied in the brand. It is thus the totality of the organisation and what it represents and what it hopes to achieve through provision of goods and services in the ordinary course of business. A brand can thus be said to constitute the collection of associations in the mind of a customer connected to the brand -e.g. quality, friendliness, added value, superior service among others and such are what can greatly differentiate between similar products and services. The value of these associations, their uniqueness and relevance are an indication of the power of the brand. The underlying brand promise is what many organizations are looking to further underscore and highlight in their increased branding efforts to retain existing customers and attract more customers. The traditional approach to studying brands is focused on how the brand is applied to customers and to investigate customers perceptions of the same; however, this is slowly changing. It has been shown through research (Barrow Mostley, 2005; Sartian Shuman, 2006) that the concept of the brand also exists in the minds of other stakeholders for example employees; and that this aspect of the brand as it applies to employees is just as important, if not more important especially in the service sector where employees are in essence the embodiment and ambassadors of the brand. Noble et al (2002) note that organisations that have developed successful brands are the ones where all areas of the organization are committed to the branding process; thus, employees are now viewed as playing a crucial role in brand management as they are the interface between the organisation and the market. Brand identification is argued to be an antecedent of employees brand commitment, which is defined as the extent of psychological attachment of employees to the brand, which influences their willingness to exert extra effort towards reaching the brand goals (Burmann Zeplin, 2005, p.284). Employee commitment is the degree to which employees identify with and are involved with the brand; are willing to exert additional efforts to achieve the goals of the brand and are interested in remaining with the organisation. Employee commitment to the brand is most essential in the service s ector where it is the extra touch that the employees add to their work that provides a memorable brand experience to the customers and makes them want to come back for more and enhances their staying power with the organisation. Therefore, the objective of employer branding is to convince employees that their organisation is a good workplace, to retain them and ensure both their understanding of the organizations goals and commitment to them (Sullivan, 2002; 2004). One key element of effective employer branding is internal branding. Internal branding is only effective when internal audiences are reached with the message of the organizations values, through effective communicational efforts and when top management also exemplifies the same. Employees cannot be expected to show what they do not know. The service sector particularly has woken up to the fundamental importance of engaging employee commitment in delivering customer satisfaction and loyalty. The service sector does not provide tangible products/output that customers can take away with them and experience on their own; their experience with an organizations brand is through interacting with the organizations staff. There has been a shift in the branding world as explained by Vargo and Lusch (2004) to a new orientation known as service branding which is more balanced in its outlook. It considers both brand identity (internal) and brand image (external); highlighting the importance of staff in the service encounter. The banking sector is one such where service branding is very vital. Customers experience of the brand begins the moment they walk through the doors of the banking hall and in their dealing and experience with the banks employees. Thus, they way they are treated while in the banking halls, response to their queries, promises made and fulfillment of the same all contribute to their perception of the brand and indeed affect their loyalty to the brand. Hence, there is a need to have a sta ff that fully understands the brand in order to deliver a more superior and unique brand experience to the customers in line with the organizations mission and vision. Overview of the Banking Industry in Kenya The banking industry in Kenya is governed by the Companies Act, the Banking Act, the Central Bank of Kenya Act and the various prudential guidelines issued by the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK). The banking sector was liberalized in 1995 and exchange controls lifted. The CBK, which falls under the Minister for Finance, is responsible for formulating and implementing monetary policy and fostering the liquidity, solvency and proper functioning of the financial system (Equity Bank, Annual Reports, 2008). As at December, 2012 there were forty six banking and non-banking institutions, fifteen micro finance institutions and one hundred and nine foreign exchange bureaus. The banks have come together under the Kenya Bankers Association (KBA), which serves as a lobby for the banking sectors interests. The KBA serves as a forum to address issues affecting members (KBA, 2012). Over the period between years 2006 to 2012, the banking sector in Kenya continued to grow in assets, deposits, profitabi lity and products offering. The growth was mainly underpinned by; first; an industry wide branch network expansion strategy both in Kenya and in the East African community region. Second; automation of a large number of services and a move towards emphasis on the complex customer needs rather than traditional off-the shelf banking products (KBA, 2012). Players in this sector experienced increased competition over the period between years 2006 to 2012 resulting from increased innovations among the players and new entrants into the market. Key players in the early stages of the operation of the Industry were; Kenya Commercial Bank(k) Ltd. (KCB), Barclays Bank of (K) Ltd., (BBK), Standard Chartered Bank (K) Ltd.(SCB), National Industrial Credit Bank (NIC), National Bank of Kenya (K) Ltd. (NBK) and Co-operative Bank of Kenya (Co-op bank) ( KBA, 2012). Statement of the Problem Despite its importance, few organisations devote enough time and resources to ensure that effective communication systems and processes are in place (Ferreira, 2006). Sanchez (1999) reported in the study conducted by Watson Wyatt Worldwide in cooperation with IABC Research Foundation that only 40 percent of 913 organisations which participated in the study, mainly from the manufacturing industry had formal communication strategies. Knowledge is important, not only between organisations, but also within the organisation. About 90 percent of the knowledge in any organization is embedded and synthesized in peoples heads (Smith, 2001). The transfer of knowledge is thus important in ensuring that organisational members learn from one another and also create new knowledge. Communication performance within organisations has been considered an understudied area and therefore poorly understood (Pandey Garnett, 2006) yet it is deemed a central component of effective business operations (Har gie, Dickson, Tourish, 2004, p.5). Hargie et al., (2004) state that a lack of effective communication can contribute to a range of problems including at one end of the continuum, job dissatisfaction and stress, through to damaging strikes, operating losses, bankruptcies, production line injuries, shipwrecks, plane crashes and, at the other extreme, mass slaughter in the field of battle (p.5). Asif and Sargeant (2000) undertook a study of two major United Kingdom clearing banks to explore a range of internal communication issues. Literature specifically referring to the banking industry and internal communication is scarce; however, studies have been undertaken within the last few years that suggest there is growing recognition of the importance of internal communication within this sector (Moorcroft, 2006; Wadman, 2006; Sablosky, 2005; Lennon, 2003; Asif Sargeant, 2000). According to Bierly, Kessler Christensen (2000, p.596) success does not necessarily go to the firms that know the most, but to the firms that can make the best use of what they know. Hence, for knowledge to give competitive advantage, it must be effectively transferred within the organisation (Murray Peyrefitte, 2007; Watson Hewett, 2006). Communication plays a vital role in the knowledge transfer process within the organisation (Du Plessis Boshoff, 2008). One way of managing the knowledge -transfer process is to select appropriate communication media for the property or type of knowledge to be transferred (Murray Peyrefitte, 2007). Information about the employees preferred communication methods and technologies is important in ensuring positive and effective communication (Du Plessis Boshoff, 2008; Ferreira, 2006). Research suggests that intranets should be considered a mosaic of top-down and bottom-up communication with distributed ownership (Dasgupta, 2001). A study carried out by Papasolomou and Vrontis (2006a) on the UK retail bank industry concluded that the problems lin ked to the branding of intangible offerings can be overcome through an emphasis on the effective implementation of Internal Marketing (IM). The study found out that since employees play a valuable role in the delivery and strengthening of corporate service brands UK retail banks have placed greater emphasis on IM in order to deliver the brands promise. A blanket approach throughout the organisation, regarding regulations on intranet usage, may not be appropriate as different business units will have different requirements. Rather a collaborative and facilitative managerial style would acknowledge diversity and individual contributions (Dasgupta, 2001), thereby allowing individual units and teams to control their own information. Studies show that the versatility and multifaceted nature of intranets has seen an increase in research that is largely multidisciplinary (Lehmuskallio, 2006); however, research into the measurement of intranet effectiveness and perceptions of the employe es towards the medium is still in its infancy and is seen as a fundamental shortcoming (Jacoby Luqi, 2007). This study will therefore focus on establishing the effectiveness of intranets to communicate brand message to its internal publics within the Kenyan banking sector. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study therefore is to establish the effectiveness of intranets to communicate the brand message to its internal publics within the Kenyan banking sector in an effort to find out if banks are taking the time, effort and resources to sell the brand to their internal audiences and what strategies have been employed to achieve this. Objectives of the Study This study will be guided by the following objectives: To establish whether banks in Kenya have adopted internal communication strategies within their organizations to communicate the brand message. To find out the effectiveness of intranets in communicating the brand message among internal publics within the Kenyan banking sector. To find out how employees in the banking sector integrate the organizations brand values through internal communication. Research Questions This study will undertake to answer the following questions How have the banks in Kenya adopted internal communication strategies within their organizations to communicate the brand message? What is the effectiveness of intranets in communicating the brand message among internal publics within the Kenyan banking sector? How do employees in the banking sector integrate the organizations brand values through internal communication? Justification of the Study Despite its importance to corporate communications, rigorous corporate communication research about the use intranets in developing nations is limited. Effective internal communication methods and media for knowledge transfer in the service industry are important for organizations to excel. Internal communication processes are therefore used to maintain good relationships, describe tasks, give instructions and communicate the goals and philosophy of the organisation. Effective internal communication is a major contributor to the success of change initiatives in organisations. In particular, at the individual level, appropriate internal communication helps employees to understand both the need for change, and the personal effects of the proposed change. This study will act as a benchmark to influence banks to adopt excellent internal communication strategies in order to better position their employees to deliver a more superior brand experience to the customers of the bank. Significance of the Study This study will add more knowledge in terms of academic contribution and knowledge which is limited in the area of internal communication within the Kenyan banking sector. This study will act as a platform through which the policy-makers within the banking sector can formulate policies to better enhance effective internal communication. The study will be able to provide recommendations and guidance on the effective internal communication strategies that can be put in place within the banking sector. Scope of the Study This study will be an overview of the internal banking environment in the Kenyan banking sector and will seek to study the 46 banks in the country. The subjects of the study will be the Public relations (PR)/marketing managers of the various institutions and the front office bank staff. Assumptions of the Study The assumptions that underlie this study are that: The banks selected for study will have some form of internal communication strategy in place used to inculcate brand knowledge among their employees. The data required for this study will be available and that the researcher will receive maximum cooperation from the expected respondents to allow for a smooth, successful and timely completion of the study. Limitations of the Study Unexpected negative response from respondents due to the fact that they might be unwilling to give out sensitive personal information. This will be mitigated through counter-checking on organizational information manuals as well as service charters. Lack of local scholarly literature on the topic as relates to banks and internal branding means that the some of the methods, concepts and models used in this study are foreign and will be adopted to suit the local experience. Definition of Terms Brand Stern (2006, p.217) argues that the word brand can be classified as both an entity and a process, depending on whether it is used as a noun or as a verb. When expressed as a noun, it is connected to a person, place, or thing; as a verb, it refers to the process of making a product meaningful (i.e., the naming or positioning of a product). Dual-function brand concepts such as brand identity and brand reputation (both used as nouns) show the flexibility of this concept. The words branding and branded, on the other hand, are used as verbs to indicate how a brands meaning changes over time. Stern further comments that in the physical world, a brand is a name or mark associated to a product while it in the minds of people refers to a mental representation or perception of a psychological meaning. This study will adopt this definition in consideration to the fact that this holistic definition reflects the fact that the brand is expressed in numerous ways, not only through market ing. Brand commitment: Burmann and Zeplin (2005, p.284) define employee brand commitment as the extent of psychological attachment of employees to the brand, which influences their willingness to exert extra effort towards reaching the brand goals. It is the degree to which employees identify and are involved with their service brand, are willing to exert additional efforts (extra touch) to achieve the goals of the brand and are interested in remaining with the organisation. Corporate communication: Steyn and Puth (2000, p.5) define corporate communication as managed communication on behalf of the organisation, aiming to increase organisational effectiveness by creating and maintaining relationships with stakeholders. Internal branding: According Drake, Gulman, and Roberts (2005) and Thomson, de Chernatony, Arganbright and Khan (1999), internal branding is the practice of selling and promoting the brand to the internal audiences of an organisation, i.e. its employe es in order to be instrumental in influencing employees attitudes and shaping their behaviours to be aligned with a brand, by creating employees understanding of brand values and engaging them in living brand-reality. Internal customers: This is the concept of customer-service provider relationships inside the organisation; employees providing a service to other employees or departments in the organisation as opposed to providing a service to clients external to the organisation. Services should be provided to fellow employees and departments with the same commitment to customer satisfaction as for external clients (Gronroos, 2000, p.307; Landman, 2005, p.7). Internal communication: Du Plessis and Boshoff (2008, p.3) defined internal communication as The communication between people working together to achieve individual or collective organisational goals. Internal communication, also referred to as organisational communication, is the process of communication between th e people within the organisation (Scheffer Crystal, 2008). Intra-organisational communication: Intra-organisational communication is the channels and systems of communication within the organisation. It entails the continuous design of interaction between all members of an organisation forming an all-inclusive device that joins people and structures within that organisation. Intra-organisational communication forms part of internal communication. Internal communication includes many configurations and disciplines of communication, for example interpersonal communication, intrapersonal communication, intra-organisational communication and management communication (Van der Walt in Verwey; Du Plessis, Barker, 2006, p.264; Landman 2005, p.7). Service marketing: Gronrooss (2000, p.7) perspective on service marketing describes it as an organisation taking the view that an enhanced offering is required to support the customers value-generating processes and that the core solu tion of a physical product, service or combination of services and goods, is not sufficient to differentiate the offering from those of competitors. Landman (2005, p.8) defines service marketing as an approach to an organizations market that recognizes that the external customer becomes an active part of its processes, and that an organisation in its totality and in all its facets determines the quality of service delivered to the customer.